How do schools administrate online learning for students with disabilities?

Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos recently declined to suspend the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) as authorized by Congress under the CARES Act (https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/04/28/847305749/secretary-devos-forgoes-waiving-disability-law-amid-school-closures, Nordworny, 2020, April 29 .

How generally do online schools administrate online learning? In Fall, 2018, I performed a small scale qualitative case study of the practices of three online schools in the states of Michigan, Massachusetts, and North Caroline and spoke with a policy expert in the field.

Historically, online learning has not had a very good reputation in terms of disability. In the early days of the 21^st century, online learning was often dogged by complaints in regards to the ability of individuals to access information, in particular with regards to the visual and hearing components of learning. When an individual is unable to hear or see, they often have, historically, lost out on a lot of information in regards to learning in these sorts of settings (Kinash, Crichton, Kim, & Weol, 2004).

Families with students with disabilities often come into online learning in one of two ways. that had been reduced in being the case even though the trends were still there.  For some families, they choose online learning because they find the IEP process actually goes better in online settings than in traditional classrooms.

While parents often do have positive interactions with online learning, they do report that they often need to “help” the child receive accommodations. That is, because there is nobody there in terms of a teacher or teaching assistant, the parent must provide the accommodation for the child (Smith, Ortiz, Rice, & Mellard, 2017).

Organizations monitor the development of policy in terms of disability issues. One such organization is COLSD, a joint agreement organization between the University of Kansas,  the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), and the National State Association of Special Education Directors. These individual organizations monitor policy developments within the state education policy field. They might carry out surveys, interviews, and reviews. They have identified issues such as persistence and attendance, IDEA principles, parental involvement, access to data, teacher preparation, the ability of teachers to provide evidence-based instruction, utilizing the online presence, and differential access to the content to be issues facing online learning (Burdette, Franklin, East, & Mellard, 2015a)

Another potential issue that has been identified is the idea of who is supervising staff. Because students sometimes come in from districts who must then pay their way, some argue that it is the district that must supervise, but others argue that because the online school is now responsible for the child’s education, they should be the ones to both pay for the services and be the ones to supervise the staff (Franklin, East, & Mellard, 2015b).

         Additionally, staffing has been a very important idea in online learning. The idea is that the students will need skills for online learning that will not necessarily be required of a teacher in a bricks-and-mortar school. For instance, scaffolding needs to be done more in an online learning environment than a bricks-and-mortar school because the teacher needs to be extra sure that the students are getting the information. It is harder for the students to be able to have immediate access to the teacher, so the teacher needs to have the skill to make sure that students are retaining the information and have the ability to support these students as needed (Pace, Mellard, Smith, & East, 2017).

        Individualized instruction is a central part of online learning for students with disabilities and students without disabilities often times as well. Having frequent support for their individual learning profiles is an important part of the online component and because of the structure of online learning, it is needed more because of the fact that the child is essentially often working alone or in a small group, so there is more of a need to reach the individualized child to make sure that they are on track with their work and learning and, if needed, make adjustments to make sure that the child retains the information (Pace, Mellard, Smith, & East, 2017).

     According to Skip Stahl, national policy director of CAST, According to Stahl, the states have varied regulations on online learning and since this has mostly been the province of state education authorities there has so far not been a lot of Federal guidance on this issue. Therefore, online learning is right now in a place where a lot of states are figuring out what to do with regards to students with disabilities in online classes or schools on a more state level than they might otherwise because, generally, the Federal government regulates a lot of the interactions schools have with students, but the online sector has not seen this regulation in place for that particular part of the education sector yet.

When students stay within their home districts, but take online classes or blended learning classes, the home school district often does the IEP process. When the students go into the process, therefore, the home district is usually still providing the financial support. However, the districts often feel like they should not have to be accountable for the child’s progress or lack of progress within the online environment because the online school is the one that is actually educating the student. The school districts feel that it is unfair to expect them to be accountable for people that do not work for them, so they often believe that the online school should be the one to take over the financial burden and the online school should also be transferred the accountability for whether the child is successful or not.

Part of the problem with regards to accountability is that there is a lack of Federal guidance about these ideas, so there tends to be variability from state to state without any real trends on how exactly online schools should be regulated. Because they lack guidance, states are having a hard time figuring out what exact data they should collect in order to measure the progress or lack of progress of students within online schools within their state, so the lack of accountability is often a product of being “lost” in the policy details without any clear path for the SEAs on what to do, so it is every state for itself that is deciding at present.

      Administrators also need to be concerned about the technical elements. In particular, they should be aware of the accessibility guidelines around accessibility concerns. They need to make sure that the technology that they have available is aligned with the guidelines. There can be problems with the technology in terms of accessibility. Administrators should confront challenges and keep communication open with stakeholders so that problems can be identified quickly. On the other hand, one of the good things about online content is that a lot of digital content is a lot easier to make accessible than content that is not digital so often times this actually ends up being an advantage instead of a hindrance. Nevertheless, the ability of an online school to be accessible is essential to its success when it comes to students with disabilities.

Schools in the case study tended to focus mostly on either personalization of services or on the sensory aspect.  The focus is either on creating a universal design for learning aspect that personalizes content for each student or focusing more on the sensory impact of online learning, which can be a major barrier if not handled correctly.

What does online learning look like for your school or your child? How do you think it adds to the student’s experience if at all and what do you think could be improved?

 

References

Franklin, T.O. Rice, M.F. East, T., & Mellard, D.F. (2015a). Enrollment, Persistence,

Progress, and Achievement. Retrieved from Smith , S ., Ortiz , K ., R ice , M ., and Mellard, D. F. (2017). Parents’ Perceptions of Special Education Service Delivery When their Children Move to Fully Online Learning . Lawrence, KS: Center on Online Learning and Students with Disabilities, University of Kansas.

Franklin, T.O., Rice, M.F. East, T, & Mellard, D.F. (2015b). Access and coordination of related services..

Retrieved from http://www.centerononlinelearning.res.ku.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Superintendent_Topic_5_Summary_Updated_October2015.pdf.

Hancock, D.R. (2011). Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning

Researchers. New York: Teachers College Press.

Nordowrdy, E. (2020, Apr. 29). Secretary DeVos Forgoes Waiving Disability Law Amid School

Closures. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-

updates/2020/04/28/847305749/secretary-devos-forgoes-waiving-disability-law-amid-

school-closures

North Carolina Virtual Public School (ND).Special Education / Section 504 Services.

Retrieved from https://ncvps.org/special-education-504-services .

Pace, J.R., Mellard, D.F., Smith, S.J., & East, T. (2017) Report on the Online Teaching

Standards and Teacher Certifi cation Workgroup for Students with Disabilities . Lawrence, KS: Center on Online Learning and Students with Disabilities, University of Kansas.

Smith , S ., Ortiz , K ., R ice , M ., and Mellard, D. F. (2017). Parents’ Perceptions of Special

Education Service Delivery When their Children Move to Fully Online Learning . Lawrence, KS: Center on Online Learning and Students with Disabilities, Universi ty of Kansas.

TECCA (ND). Education Equality and Equity. Retrieved from

https://www.connectionsacademy.com/massachusetts-virtual-school/curriculum/special-education

Responding to the big challenges of our institutions

     New York Times columnist David Brooks recently wrote about national malaise has impacted some of the challenges of the day. A large part, Brooks believes, is economic malaise tied particularly to the general economic challenges. Brooks and his sources suggests reducing benefits for affluent non-working people, while assisting employers in funding higher wages and assisting people from high unemployment areas in relocation expenses. He also suggests reforms in immigration to bring in research and innovation talent, reforming the tax code (with an endorsement of a plan offered by Sens. Marco Rubio and Mike Lee), and increasing “human-capital” investment, specifically in education to allow more people to earn college degrees, since research shows this tends to increase people’s earning power (Brooks, 24 October, 2014, downloaded from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/24/opinion/david-brooks-the-working-nation.html, November 2, 2014). These are important ideas.

However, we cannot ignore or simplify everything down to just jobs. Economic life is extremely important to American life. It influences most decisions in one way or another. Even if some individuals wish this was not the case, it is a reality.

However, if the United States wants to truly address the malaise, it will take more than just policy innovations. The United States will also have to recapture some of its values of innovation, faith, scientific rigor, and continue to work to reestablish its moral center in the universe. It will take fidelity to its values, especially those enshrined in the Constitution. We will have to pay attention to the family unit, the bedrock of our society, and work to continue to reestablish those ties. The nation will need to confront the issues of mental health services and gun violence in a way that preserves individual liberty and dignity. We need to empower teachers and local school districts so that they perform at their very best, so that all children will have access to top-quality education from their earliest years until higher education and make sure that these students are fully prepared for a career upon completion of that education, not because education entitles people to jobs, but because the education system, working perhaps in partnership with government and industry, should be able to prepare students for stable work. We must empower our economic engines and our laborers, especially our small businesses and family farms and ranches. We need to encourage parents to take responsibility for their children and gradually encourage students to take responsibility for their own lives. We cannot avoid all inequalities, but we must reduce both the sense of victimhood / entitlement and correct the historical conditions that cause such a mentality. We need a health care system that is top of the line and yet, at the same time, encourages innovation that drives down the cost of health care so that one does not have to be wealthy to afford health care. We must exude both strength and moral leadership at home and abroad.

Most importantly, the citizens of the United States need to have and restore their sense of optimism in their institutions. Many citizens of the United States have pride in their country – and continue to do so no matter what party is in power. Their faith in country, and perhaps faith in a higher power, compels these citizens to do the needed work no matter what the situation is and strive forever on to meet the challenges that today and tomorrow may bring.

However, as citizens and as human beings, we cannot be merely satisfied with the status quo. We must think boldly. Saint Paul wrote, “When I was a child, I spoke as a child; I understood as a child; I thought as a child, but when I became a man, I put away childish things” (NRSV, 1 Corinthians 13:11). The context of this piece of scripture has to do with spiritual gifts and love, specifically the concept of agape, divine love. Saint Paul is arguing here for maturity to understand these gifts. In other words, to fully reach our potential, we need to reach spiritual maturity.

We cannot be mired in depression and inaction. We need maturity and strength to deal with a changing world, yet we must be mindful of our societal challenges. Institutions and things in our world are changing and will continue to change. However, we must remain true to our faith and allegiance. We must be a people of action, of maturity, and of reason. Although the path will not always be easy, we cannot aspire to be our best if we are complicit in mediocrity or fail to meet the challenges. The United States is a country of big ideas. As we have in the past, we must rise to meet a new set of challenges. If we rise to this challenge, we can make our country and our world sustainable.

Because I believe in this mission, I will be utilizing this specific blog less. There are other opportunities to learn, develop, and even blog about. I will likely post occasionally at least for the foreseeable future. I will also publish links to any new blogs I develop. I thank my readers for your attention and comments over the course of this project.

Neurological Myths, UDL, and Common Core State Standards

A recent study, reported in the journal Nature, of neurological myths and teaching practice has cast some doubt on certain elements that are linked to Universal Design for Learning (Howard-Jones, 2014 http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nrn3817.html?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatRevNeurosci, downloaded October 28, 2014).. In turn, this study, if true, would seem to cut into certain assumptions that the Common Core State Standards make about students with disabilities

For example, one of the myths the researcher, Paul Howard-Jones, lists is the idea of preferred learning styles (Perry, 21 October 2014, downloaded from http://www.minnpost.com/second-opinion/2014/10/educators-misguided-belief-neuromyths-hinders-childrens-learning-expert-says). Preferred learning styles stem from the theories of Howard Gardner (1983, 1999). Gardner’s theories of multiple intelligences state that students have different abilities and, thus, should be taught in differentiated ways that accommodate the student’s needs. However, Howard-Jones lists these as one of the myths of education finding no real evidence of this study. In fact, Howard-Jones claims studies have shown that students actually may learn better in ways that may be oppositional to their learning preferences.

Interestingly enough, however, proponents of Universal Design for Learning (e.g. Meyer & Rose, 2005) have claimed that Gardner’s theories actually can be scientifically supported through neuroscience. For example, they cite work in psychology and neuroscience to support their work, specifically talking about brain pathways (e.g. Gevins & Smith, 2000; Habib, McIntosh, &Tolving, 2000; Kent, 1998; Nichelli, Graggman, Pietrini, Clark, Lee, & Milletich, 1995; Petersen, van Mier, Fiez, & Raichle, 1998; Rypma &D’Esposito, 1998; Tootell, Reppas, Kwong, Malach, Born, Brady, 1995; Wallis & Bulthoff, 1999; Xiong, Rao, Jerabek, Zamarripa, Woldorff, & Lancaster, 2000). It would seem that the notion of brain pathways may be established, but the tie to Gardner’s theories related to learning have not been fully established and, in fact, be contradicted by other research.

Since Gardner’s theories have played an important role in differential instruction, however, this study, should it have impact, would somewhat undermine some of the suggestions the CCSS make concerning students with disabilities, specifically those standards that help students with “severe disabilities” meet these standards or equivalent standards. However, since there has been certain scientific support via the brain pathways research, the potential for learning is still there. The fact that multiple intelligences may be a myth does not necessarily completely deter UDL because there is alternative scientific evidence.

This new study does, however, point to a potential weakness in how students with disabilities would fare under the study. Since CCSS was not researched per se, but rather based on so-called “international benchmarks” and supposed expert consultation (CCSS, 2014), it is not surprising, perhaps, that a potential weakness may be exposed. Even though the goal is laudable, and perhaps still doable, it may weaken the effectiveness of the argument.  In order to help students with disabilities to succeed, policy must be driven by real evidence-based practices, not extrapolations or theories, but actual evidence based on scientific merit, preferably the gold-standard double blind trial, which was derived from the pharmaceutical industry.

I do not believe this study completely derails Universal Design for Learning, but it may impact its marketing. Moreover, it exposes a potential weakness in the recommended practices toward students with disabilities (another thing CCSS gets wrong since UDL is supposed to be for everyone [National Center on Universal Design, 2011]). Proponents of Universal Design for Learning, specifically differentiated instruction, will have to think carefully, and perhaps more carefully examine, in a way devoid of ideology, whether differentiated instruction still holds a place in Universal Design for Learning. Until such time as that occurs, policymakers and educators need to be skeptical of what strategies actually work. More scientific, less ideologically driven, practice of what actually works and has been tested in the classroom needs to hold precedence. It remains to be seen how this study, or subsequent studies and shifts, will actually impact UDL or CCSS, if at all, but it does bring to light a potential flaw that may need to be corrected.

A question of language and capabilities

In a recent op-ed piece, former Baltimore school board member and president of Baltimore Special Education Advocacy Coalition Kalman Hettleman (7 October, 2014, http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/oped/bs-ed-disabled-students-20141007-story.html, downloaded on October 24, 2014) notes that the issue that many people have with including students with disabilities into educational reform efforts such as Common Core has to do with the vagueness of language often utilized in such efforts.

For example, Hettleman notes that although the term “most severe cognitive disorders” is utilized to create alternative standards for students with such disabilities, there is very little guidance from policymakers as to what exactly this entails (Hettleman, 7 October, 2014, http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/oped/bs-ed-disabled-students-20141007-story.html, downloaded on October 24, 2014). While Hettleman does not fully address this, it has to do with the social construction of disability well discussed in more social models of disability (e.g. Wendell, 1996; Liachowitz, 1988; Oliver, 1990; Charlton, 2000; Goodley, 2001). Socially, there is an assumption of what disability is, but there is not a well-defined notion of what severe cognitive impairment actually looks like, hence an open-ended and controversial policy.

This particular change is not well-defined. It is possible that there is intent that the policy remains open so that societal values can decide what “severe cognitive disability is” for itself. That would allow for different interpretations at various historical moments (with the assumption that the policy will endure) and, perhaps, for more local interpretations of disability.

However, as Hettleman notes (7 October, 2014, http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/oped/bs-ed-disabled-students-20141007-story.html, downloaded on October 24, 2014), it is also important to interrogate the assumptions that are being made about the capabilities of people with various kinds of disabilities. For example, certain kinds of supports, such as communication access, screen readers, and less technical solutions such as differential instruction, have assisted individuals, previously not thought to be intellectually capable, to achieve academic competence.

It would seem, therefore, that given the right classroom techniques and other supports may be useful at narrowing the classification of “severely cognitive impaired.” It is, however, important that policymakers, if they make such decisions, narrowly tailor situations, perhaps through interpretive guidance, to decrease the possibility of possible discrimination. It may also be appropriate to allow for “escapes” should a student demonstrate progress they were not previously thought capable of in the past. Such protections would be in better keeping with the protections and capabilities that is currently being promoted in U.S. educational policy.

Andrew Bennett

Vulnerability, Education Reform, and Universal Design for Learning

i have recently completed an internship with the Department of Defense Education Activity. As a precaution, this post is my opinion alone and does not necessarily reflect that of the United States Government, the Department of Defense, or the Department of Defense Education Activity.    

Recently, I watched some videos of TED talks given by vulnerability and researcher Brene Brown. Dr. Brown refers to vulnerability not necessarily as a weakness, but as a source of courage.

Vulnerability utilizes very different mechanisms than other responses. It is perhaps because vulnerability involves confronting our fears and differences. Not being able to deal with vulnerability and shame in appropriate ways can be unhealthy. On the other hand, awareness of vulnerabilities and shame can be quite helpful (Brown, 2010, 2012), downloaded from http://www.ted.com/speakers/brene_brown, October 13, 2014).

Education reform is often driven by fear. There is usually a sense that students are somehow not performing up to par in the current system and, thus, the system must be reformed. The reform is often categorical instead of looking at individual students.

Despite its seeming connection to education reform, Universal Design for Learning is concerned with individual learners as well as systematic issues. This more individualized approach may not necessarily provide quite an easy fit for certain education reform efforts, especially with regards to standardization.

Universal Design for Learning does involve emphasis on standards to the extent that students are to get to standards utilizing various ways of knowing / learning to achieve the standard. It is oppositional to certain kinds of standardization, however, in that there is not necessarily a one-size-fits-all approach to getting students to a place where they meet the standard.

Vulnerability impacts Universal Design for Learning in two ways. First, teachers and administrators need to be able to utilize flexibility if they are to use UDL to be most impactful. Secondly, students need to be able to be aware of their strengths and vulnerabilities in learning. Students need to have cultures that value various ways of learning (e.g. the school is aware of Multiple Intelligences, plans its lessons accordingly, and educates students on Multiple Intelligences, Gardner, 1991) and to have awareness of their strengths and weaknesses. Because students may have various ways to learn, and because student needs may vary from school to school and even within schools, it is important to not interfere with instruction as long as students are, in fact, meeting high standards.

What is developmentally appropriate?: The CCSS, early childhood education, and UDL

i recently completed an internship with the Department of Defense Education Activity. This blog is my opinion and does not necessarily reflect that of the United States Government, the Department of Defense, or the Department of Defense Education Activity. 

The first is more or less an excerpted article by retired education professor Joseph Ricciotti written for major newspapers in Connecticut (Ricciotti, 2014, downloaded from http://dianeravitch.net/2014/10/06/joseph-ricciotti-common-core-takes-the-joy-out-of-learning/ on October 6, 2014). Ricciotti insists that the CCSS does not treat teachers or students with dignity. Among his assertions are that the CCSS is developmentally inappropriate. For example, Ricciotti cites Angie Sullivan, a kindergarten teacher, complaining about how her students are required to write opinion based essays. Sullivan states that the third grade curriculum has essentially been pushed down to kindergarten (Ricciotti, 2014, cited by Ravitch, 2014, downloaded from http://dianeravitch.net/2014/10/06/joseph-ricciotti-common-core-takes-the-joy-out-of-learning/)..

Sullivan is a kindergarten in Nevada and is an anti-Common Core leader in that state. Sullivan cites her concern as being mainly concerned with the appropriateness of the CCSS / Nevada standards (Ravitch, 2014, downloaded October 6, 2014 from http://dianeravitch.net/2014/10/06/nevada-can-a-5-year-old-write-a-fact-and-opinion-paper/).

Sullivan goes on to cite a letter of objections put forward by the Alliance for Childhood (2010, March 2, downloaded October 6, 2014 from http://www.edweek.org/media/joint_statement_on_core_standards.pdf).   The Alliance for Childhood objected to the Common Core based upon four objections. First, the new standards, they believe, will force out play-based instruction for long, didactic instruction, which the Alliance for Childhood believes is inappropriate for young children. Secondly, the Alliance believes that the standards will lead to inappropriate standardized testing. Third, the Alliance believes that the combination of testing and didactic instruction will push out other important learning which children, at this age, need in order to be successful. Finally, the Alliance believes that there is not strong enough evidence from top-performing countries to establish nationwide standards in this area.

The objections of Ricciotti, Sullivan, the Alliance for Childhood, and, presumably, Ravitch related to the developmental appropriateness of CCSS largely turn on cultural arguments. It is most likely true that many American children would not be prepared to meet the standards today. This is because U.S. society has not previously believed that it was developmentally appropriate for young children to undertake such endeavors. However, various societies, whether they are actually formally educating children or not, do have various expectations for children and later as adolescents that differ from society to society (for example, see Berger & Lueckmann, 1966, Lesko, 2001, Rosemund, 2014).  Our understanding of developmental appropriateness, therefore, is mostly culturally based. Even when compared to other countries, the assumption made by the Alliance for Children is somewhat muted because they more or less assume that early learning can only happen in school or school-like settings. There may be alternative explanations such as learning happening from family sources or other informal means of education.

Not only is “developmentally appropriate” a cultural issue, but it is also sometimes central to arguments concerning children with disabilities. For example, who should determine the developmental appropriateness of an intellectually impaired or autistic child? Should professional determination that an education program is inappropriate be the sole determiner of the child’s readiness to pursue education? The field of disability studies has troubled the notion of professional judgment in making assumptions about people with disabilities (e.g. Barnes, Mercer, & Shakespeare, 1999; Campbell & Oliver, 1996; Charlton, 1988). Professionalization has often poised troublesome burdens on people with disabilities especially when it comes to their competency. Professional judgment that insists a certain disabled child is unready for academic concerns can hinder such things as literate and mathematical development. The assumption that the child cannot reach a goal automatically disqualifies the student from reaching the goal. The same issues seem to be in play in the objections raised above.

That being said, it is also important to be cautious about the goals students can reach and to allow those ideas to happen or par with developmentally appropriate milestones as marked by scientific study (developmental psychology, for example). Students must be supported in an environment conducive to how they might learn best and be exposed to a variety of means in order to learn.

Although Universal Design for Learning is incorporated into CCSS as a way to allow students with disabilities to meet the standards (CCSS, 2010), it is appropriate to question whether Universal Design for Learning might be better utilized among a larger audience as intended (National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2011). UDL can be of use, therefore, in helping a wide variety of students meet goal-based standards, not just students with disabilities. In order to be more fully incorporated, however, a key element of flexibility needs to be incorporated. It is upon this point that opponents of CCSS may have their strongest argument for restricting the ways in which students can learn would hinder the ability of educators to be flexible.

Educators might be better off utilizing the flexibility argument and utilizing any evidence-based research (beyond arguments rooted more in culture) that shows how certain ideas in the CCSS are unworkable from an instructional point of view. However, it is also important that these educators are not dismissing the possibilities or importance of the standards merely because it is new or different. While the CCSS may not be the most flexible document, subsequent reform efforts may find it useful to incorporate flexibility while maintaining and, if applicable, raising standards.

Andrew Bennett

Based upon what evidence?: The need for evidence-based practice in education

I recently completed an internship with the Department of Defense Education Activity. Out of an abundance of caution, this blog does not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense, the Department of Defense Education Activity, or the U.S. government.

One of the legacies of education reform is the establishment of the “gold standard” of randomized controlled styles in educational research. In the United States, this “gold standard” was set in law by the 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Schools act (the so-called “No Child Left Behind Act,” PL 107-110, 107^th Congress, 2002) although it was prominently introduced by former U.S. Secretary of Education William J. Bennett (1986).

Some of the best evidence on best practices in education can be gathered from empirical fields such as psychology, sociology, neuroscience, and even economics (Whitehurst, 2002). This data can be collected and used to evaluate compare, evaluate, and monitor performance (Whitehurst, 2002).

According to Whitehurst, however, scientific evidence is not a complete end-all to educational practice. Instead, it should be combined with what Whitehurst terms “professional wisdom”. Professional wisdom is knowledge collected by local educators in regards to practice with regards to local circumstances. It also allows exploration of areas not previously covered by research. However, the local wisdom of educators cannot replace empirical practice. For example, without empirical practice, it would be difficult to know which practice might work better in a given situation. It also is a way for professionals to share knowledge. Finally, evidence based practice is a way to avoid fad, fancy, and personal bias (Whitehurst, 2002).

The relevance of empirical based practice is why the No Child Left Behind Act codified empirical evidence as a way to make decisions (Whitehurst, 2002). It would not do to make decisions based on fancy, based on evidence that reflected personal bias, or even based upon a limited local experience. In order to make decisions, especially at a national level, evidence must be free of such things. Alternatively, practices might be slanted toward a particular local practice that may not work in another context. Research bias in more local practice may also reveal researcher bias, which may show the practice to actually be false. Evidence-based research, especially double-blind studies (the gold standard in education reform) can help avoid such potential pitfalls in research. This increases the quality of the research and makes it more likely that the practice will, in fact, succeed in another context.

Biesta (2007) criticizes the idea of evidence-based practice as being non-causal and insufficient to cover what actually goes on in education. Relatedly, Biesta draws on the work of John Dewey to suggest that evidence-based strategies draw on deliberative judgments about education that may not actually achieve educationally desirable results. Finally, Biesta criticizes evidence-based strategies for focusing too much on the technical side of education instead of the cultural end of education. This, Biesta believes, is not compatible with democratic education. Biesta’s work seems to idealize a particular brand of education while promoting alternative sociological practices and educational theories. Since Biesta leans so heavily on what might be “educationally desirable results”, it is obvious that there is a bias toward particular ways of educating students. Apparently, Dewey’s models for democratic education produce, for Biesta, “educationally desirable results.” If a practice, however, does produce “educationally desirable results”, it should be able to be proved. Moreover, Biesta is contradictory on this particular point. Appealing to particular theories of education is, in fact, making deliberative judgments about educational quality. The idealized point of evidence based practices is to avoid deliberative judgment. Instead of refuting evidence based practice, Biesta’s argument comes across as more of a criticism of how evidence based practice actually plays out and an appeal to the democratic education ideas of Dewey. In terms of Biesta’s comments with regards to the cultural end of education, certain variables can tell us more about the sociological end of education. However, it is very difficult to universalize about cultural norms, which is why non-evidence based practices cannot be relied upon to produce practices. This does not necessarily mean they do not have worth, but rather that they cannot be extrapolated to the larger population.

Larry Cuban (2014, found at http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2014/04/10/the-problem-with-evidence-based-education-policy-the-evidence/, downloaded October 4, 2014) also opposes evidence-based practice. For Cuban, evidence-based practice is identified too strongly with political choices.  Educational reformers, especially within the political sphere, seize upon even small differences to account for a particular political agenda. Additionally, sociological elements found from more qualitative studies might be better at explaining conditions (Cuban, 2014). Cuban’s analysis does point to some issues with how evidence-based practice is utilized, but he does not necessarily refute the need for evidence-based practice. He instead points to the misuse of evidence-based practice to support particular political views. While his point with regards to qualitative research is well taken, Cuban conveniently ignores the benefits of evidence-based practice while promoting qualitative practice. He also fails to account for the downsides of evidence-based practice.

Evidence-based practices can be a significant way to improve educational practices. Unlike more qualitative accounts such as case studies and anecdotes, these studies do a better job at predicting which studies actually work. As opponents like Biesta and Cuban point out, evidence-based practice does not always work as well as it is idealized especially with regards to political decision making. Moreover, it may not account for certain sociological factors.

However, evidence-based practice does provide, in an idealized state, does offer several advantages in policy making and to local educators. The issues presented by opponents have more to do with how evidence-based practice is used in reality, the need for greater sociological context, and particular visions of education. The former two objections are issues more rooted in practice / technical issues and the latter issue is more political / theoretical. The latter issue is more political / theoretical in nature than it is evidence to actually disprove evidence-based practice.  Truth does not change just because one’s personal politics / theoretical beliefs do not align with the evidence. Evidence-based practice may need to be perfected, but it does provide an opportunity to key insights in education that can lead to better policy and better teaching.

UDL and Education Reform: A Primer

I recently left an internship with the U.S. Department of Defense Educational Activity. Just to be on the safe side, this post does not necessarily reflect the viewpoints of the Department of Defense Educational Activity, the Department of Defense, or the United States Government. Opinions expressed here are my own and I am solely responsible for this content.

 

Education is often in a state of reform especially as society changes over time. In the United States, educational reform has taken its most recent turn in the Common Core Curriculum. Currently, 43 states, the District of Columbia, and several U.S. territories participate in the Common Core Curriculum. The Common Core is a set of standards developed utilizing expert opinions about what students should know after each grade level (CCSs, 2014).

These standards reflect a “college and career ready” approach, indicating that students, upon graduation from high school (secondary school) will either be ready for postsecondary schoolwork without remediation or will be able to successfully complete vocational training and be able to carry out the career of their choice within skilled trades (CCSS, 2014).

These standards currently fall into two categories. The first category is standards for mathematics. The second standard is language arts. Language arts, it should be noted, has under the Common Core become an expanded category. Traditionally, the subject of language arts has been thought to encompass writing, reading, and the study of literature. The most significant change in this subject, under Common Core, is that literature has become an expanded category. Now, non-fiction literature, including historical documents and technical literature have an expanded presence in the standards especially in the later grades. These two areas were chosen because they are deemed to be building blocks for skills needed in a variety of areas that can be spread throughout the grade levels. For example, mathematics complements sciences. Eventually, there will be more standards for other subjects. Some states, in fact, are currently going about creating College and Career Ready standards in subjects such as science and the arts (CCSS, 2014).

Although the Common Core has proved to be a controversial issue domestically (e.g.. Oklahoma has pulled out of Common Core and Louisiana is considering it while other states never joined and with one state, Minnesota, declining to participate in mathematics standards and with opposition from various conservative and liberal factions), it does lay groundwork to increase expectations of all student groups, including students with disabilities and students who do not speak English as their first language.

One of the suggested ways to do this is through “instructional supports for learning” (CCSS, 2014) “Instructional supports” are parallel to the concept of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (CCSS, 2014). However, the National Universal Design for Learning Center points out that Universal Design for Learning actually goes beyond the implementation suggestions laid out by Common Core. Rather, the National UDL Center suggests that UDL actually extends to all learners.

Universal Design for Learning is a set of instructional strategies, supports, and evaluations that are designed to enable all learners to meet goals. Education reformers often support their argument by defining UDL’s codification under the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-135, 110^th Congress), 2008. This definition calls for flexibility in presenting information to students and in ways of having them demonstrate mastery of material and reducing barriers to instruction and providing appropriate accommodations to students who need them. It is emphasized that UDL is an evidence-based strategy (P..l. 110-135, 110^th U.S. Congress). Evidence-based strategies are those driven by “hard” data (i.e. studies incorporating scientific method and quantitative evidence).

UDL’s roots are rooted in psychology and neuroscience 9e.g. Gevins & Smith, 2000; Habib, McIntosh, &Tolving, 2000; Kent, 1998; Nichelli, Graggman, Pietrini, Clark, Lee, & Milletich, 1995; Petersen, van Mier, Fiez, & Raichle, 1998; Rypma &D’Esposito, 1998; Tootell, Reppas, Kwong, Malach, Born, Brady, 1995; Wallis & Bulthoff, 1999; Xiong, Rao, Jerabek, Zamarripa, Woldorff, & Lancaster, 2000). These studies were made possible by examining how brain pathways work. Further evidence established pathways for learning (Tootell, Rappas, Kwong, Malach, Bor Brady, Rosen, & Belliveau 1995; Wallis & Bulthoff, 1999). Because tasks are individuated within the brain, people do not process information in exactly the same way (Schlaug, Jancke, Huang, & Steinmetz, 1995).

Learning has been revealed to be 1) modular, 2) distributed, 3) parallel. And 4) heterarchical (Meyer & Rose, 2005). Learning takes place as various modules in the brain interact (Gevins & Smith, 2000; Habib, McIntosh, & Tulving, 2000; Rypma & D’Esposito, 1999). Additional theoretical support for this way of understanding learning pathways comes from Howard Gardner’s (Gardner, 1983, 1999) work on multiple intelligences which indicates that there are various kinds of intelligences that a person may possess. According to Gardner, individuals will learn better if information is presented a variety of ways because such instruction accounts for a greater number of “kinds” of learners. For example, some individuals may learn best verbally, some through kinetic movement or by doing, some visually, some through auditory means, and so forth.

UDL best supports curriculum in three ways. First, it utilizes multiple means of representation across learning styles. Secondly, it allows students to express themselves in multiple ways while holding to standards. Finally, it allows for multiple means of engagement through a variety of means (Meyer & Rose, 2005).

Another way that UDL impacts curriculum is through deemphasizing (although not necessarily waiving) certain presentational elements (e.g. books and lectures) in favor of other kinds of learning practices. These practices contain built-in models of performance, opportunities for supported practice, immediate feedback, and communities of practices (Dalton, Pisha, Coyne, Eagleton, & Dreycher, 2001).

Feedback, in form of assessment, can be an important issue in UDL and is of particular concern in the age of education reform. UDL principles indicate that there should be some level of flexibility built into assessments. UDL’s emphasis on technology, however, can actually provide for a greater level of deeper assessment than traditional exams, however, as students can be evaluated through a variety of conditions which goes beyond what traditional exams can measure (Meyer & Rose, 2005; Russell & Haney, 1997, 2000).

Of course, individuals with the most severe cognitive disabilities may need alternative assessment in order to meet goals. One way, currently being led by a collaborative group of academic, non-profit, and corporate researchers, hosted by the University of Kansas, is working on one particularly UDL based alternative assessment called the Dynamic Learning Maps Assessment. This assessment recognizes that learning pathways, especially within this group, are not linear (Dynamic Learning Maps, 2011-2014). An example of a learning map can be seen here (www.dynamiclearningmaps.org/content/what-learning-map).

Now that we have a primer in UDL and educational reforms, we can discuss more substantial issues in UDL and education reform. This content will be coming in the following weeks. Until that time, please use the comment tool for your questions, opinions, and feedback.

Andrew Bennett

A little rowdy, a little wonky, and coming changes: Sustainable Institutions after 1 year and a hiatus

Hello Sustainable Institutions Readers,

It has been awhile since we last (virtually) conversed, has it not, regular Sustainable Institutions readers? I am back from “blog hiatus”. Posts will be appearing more regularly on this blog.

It was about this time a year ago that I started the Sustainable Institutions blog. The blog has really wondered around since that time! We have done higher education issues, K-12 education issues, marketing / business issues, environmental issues, religious oriented material, and yoga and fitness blog posts. That is a lot of topics!

My original point in starting the blog was to encourage conversation about “sustaining” important institutions in society and making them work for the people within those institutions. It recognized that institutions are not necessarily perfect and as the world revolves, the things people may take for granted are not necessarily going to be in place. How can we sustain our institutions while making the required changes to “work” with a changing culture? Are there points of departure where an institution would not want to change (for example, to uphold some sort of long-established or even sacred tenet)? These were the questions I was interested in writing about when I started this blog.

Unfortunately, I have found as a blogger that perhaps a wide range of issues is perhaps not the right format for a blog. Because there are so many things that can be covered, the blog seems to lack particular commitment.

Moreover, because Sustainable Institutions has sought a “middle way” approach, it has sometimes displayed weakness in its argumentation. Certainly, there are points in which facts, rather than ideology, needs to drive action, but it is most responsible, in discussing societal issues, to derive a particular point of view since facts lead us to one particular conclusion or another. There are certainly times where reasonable compromise can be achieved.  At other times, moderation can lead to complicity in a social wrong (King, 1963, found at http://mlkkpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/resources/article/annotated_letter_from_birmingham/, downloaded September 14, 2014). Utilizing this logic, it is important to advance actual arguments instead of consigning ourselves to be on moral autopilot. Moreover, utilizing viewpoints, assigned in facts, can be a positive in the democratic process.

I have decided, therefore, to start utilizing this blog to write more about narrower topics and to exert stronger viewpoints (i.e. improve argumentation) where appropriate. I will be writing about Universal Design for Learning in U.S. based educational reform efforts. I will be explaining these things in more detail at a later date. While I will be covering a diverse set of viewpoints, I hope to enact more discussion within this framework.

I enjoyed writing about fitness / spirituality issues and may consider writing about those on another blog site at a later date. For now, I want to see if this particular blog format can be successful, so am concentrating on this blog site for now.

For my readers, thank you for your readership over the last year. For those who may be new, welcome to the blog. I do hope rather you are a long-time reader or just reading this blog for the first time that you will continue to be engaged in this blog. Maybe it will get a bit wonky; maybe it will get a bit rowdy; it is all a part of participating in democracy via the blogosphere.

Be at your best.

Andrew Bennett

Blog hiatus

Greetings Sustainable Institutions readers:

This blog will be on hiatus until the end of the summer (Northern Hemisphere). Until September, I will  only be posting if circumstances warrant it. Until that time, feel free to read the archives.

Be at your best,

Andrew Bennett